Tourism Protect: Child protection in tourism

Tourism Protect discusses and campaigns for better child protection in tourism. Tourism can bring many positive benefits for communities. Unfortunately they also suffer from the negative impacts of tourism. Children are often victims of abuse, sexual trafficking, human slavery and exploitation in tourism. Tourism Protect discusses the issue, performs research, publishes the newest articles and updates and campaigns to end exploitation of children in the tourism industry

Friday, November 21, 2014

Residential care centre perspectives on the impacts of orphanage tourism in Cambodia

Tourism Concern article about my research:

The growing popularity of international volunteering has led to the trend of orphanage tourism, whereby people take time to volunteer at or visit an orphanage while visiting a foreign country. The literature on volunteer tourism is growing but mainly focuses on the volunteer and to a lesser extent on the host communities, and the literature on orphanage tourism is limited. Furthermore, there is a great deal of anecdotal evidence from blogs, newspapers and documentaries about the positive and negative impacts on host organizations.
This research unravels some of the tensions between the vocational and financial aspects of care from the currently unreported perspective of the managers of the care centres. These centres were carefully selected and had to follow national, international laws and guidelines on childcare and child protection. It analyses social and economic, negative and positive impacts of orphanage tourism in Cambodia by interviewing the managers, directors or volunteer coordinators of nine residential care facilities .
Orphanages in Cambodia are supposed to be long term residential centres that provide all basic developmental needs for children who have lost one or both biological parents[1] . Yet Save The Children Alliance [2] shows many countries in which 80% of the children in residential care have parents, which is also the case in Cambodia according to UNICEF [3]. These centres also admit a variety of children at risk and children in need of special protection, but are often unable to provide specialised services
International research demonstrates that institutionalisation of children impacts negatively on social, physical, intellectual and emotional child development and that non-institutional care is recognised as providing children with a range of benefits compared to other forms of residential care[4]. Globally, there is a growing consensus on the need to promote family-based alternatives to institutional care for children. Furthermore, much of the care in these centres is done by international volunteers. The literature and media point out a manifold of issues arising with orphanage tourism. It is believed to negatively impact the children and the community and add existing problems or create an environment where children are kept in vulnerable and dangerous situations[5] . There is a high rise in number of orphanages globally, with evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa[6], Nepal [7]Indonesia [8]and Ghana [9]. The growth in Cambodia is 75% since 2005[10] counting only facilities registered with the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, so actual numbers could be much higher. Some believe there is a link between the 250% rise in tourism during the same period as the rise in residential care facilities[11]. Most orphanages are supported by overseas donors and tourists who are unaware of community based and family care alternatives and the potential risks of putting children in orphanages[12]. The orphanage has become a tourist attraction. Although most donors have good intentions, there is little doubt that some Cambodian orphanages have been set up to make money from foreign tourists and there are cases of children being asked to perform for, or befriend donors and sometimes to actively solicit the funds to guarantee the residential centres’ survival[13]. Another issue is Cambodian orphans have parents who are giving away their children to orphanages in hope of a better future and a good education[14]. Over 70% of the `orphans’ in Cambodia have at least one living parent[15]. The residential care centres are technically not orphanages and these children are not orphans, but in Cambodia for example the terms `orphanages’ and `orphans’ are widespread[16]. Yet many tourists are unaware that the majority of children in residential care in Cambodia are not double orphans[17]. Many studies found that residential care has negative impacts on vulnerable children. But new research also highlights the negative impacts of tourism on residential care centres. Very young children are programmed to build attachments[18] and undergo repeated abandonments: by their parents, staff turnover and the wave of tourists that visit the centre. Institutionalized children tend to manifest the same indiscriminate affection towards volunteers[19] and volunteers are often encouraged to make intimate connections with the children. After a few days or weeks, this attachment is broken when the volunteer leaves and a new attachment forms when the next volunteer arrives. This is aggravated by the lack of skills on orphanage management as the vast majority of people running the orphanages in Cambodia have little or no skills and experience in operating residential childcare institutions[20].
The literature on volunteer tourism however also points out several positive impacts on host organizations: alleviation of poverty[21] , enhancing career opportunities by training locals[22] , improving the local economy [23] and establishing cross cultural understanding[24].
The research findings present the narrative of the orphanages and compare their opinions and ideas with the literature on the subject. Orphanage tourism is clearly different from conventional forms of tourism as it involves the combination of pleasure, work and children.
The research looked at the perceived impacts of volunteers and visitors on orphanages in Cambodia. Impacts of orphanage tourism are perceived by the respondents as mainly positive and rarely negative. The positive impacts are on the children’s education, life skills, confidence, staff skills, the local economy and the centres’ finances. Impacts of residential care are also a better option than the children’s abusive family situations according to the respondents. It is important to mention that one orphanage responded more critically than the others and they in fact find the impacts of orphanage tourism on residential care centres mainly negative. All centres say the positive impacts are due to strict recruitment, induction, rules and regulations. Interestingly, according to the respondents, negative impacts were mainly caused by cooperation with volunteer placement agencies which have an overall negative reputation throughout the literature and secondary data. The main complaints were the insufficient screening of volunteers, inefficiently organized agencies and lack of preparation and information for the volunteers. However, it was revealed that most respondents had a certain lack of knowledge concerning negative impacts of orphanage tourism. They risk not acknowledging the signs of negative impacts on the children’s wellbeing, for example psychological traumas. However the orphanages claimed to be generally willing to learn about childcare, specifically family reintegration and improve their practices. They were open for government monitoring and applaud efforts to reduce exploitation in residential care
The orphanages overall depend on volunteers for cheap skilled labour and on visitors for financial benefits. It was apparent that the literature and host organisations barely mention the impacts of orphanage tourism on their staff and only one of the orphanages employs the volunteers to build staff capacity. It was clear that the respondents and the literature largely contrast in depicting the practice of orphanage tourism. The respondents distance themselves from the overly negative description of orphanage tourism in literature and media and acknowledge the existence of “those exploitative orphanages” but do not associate with them.
The research showed that he impacts of orphanage tourism on the children in orphanages needs further detailed investigation, especially by psychologists and social workers. The research revealed that the majority of the orphanages were unaware and unskilled to determine the emotional and psychological impacts of orphanage tourism on children. Furthermore the impacts of orphanage tourism on staff and the possibilities for capacity building should be further researched. Is there in fact a categorization of orphanages and are there different types of “good” and “bad” orphanages? The impacts of orphanage tourism on orphanages can be researched on a wider scale and in different countries, to expand the academic research on the topic and give a broader view on the subject. There is clearly a need for further research which investigates the long-term effects of voluntourists on the orphans and research with orphanages that are not considered best practice. Finally the possibilities for alternative care in developing countries should be further investigated to determine if residential care is in fact the solution or the centres should shift towards a family re integration approach.
Joni Verstraete, independent consultant.

Acknowledgements

This article is an abridged version of a research project conducted for Leeds Metropolitan University. The full length report is available on request from the author.

Reference list

American Psychiatrists Association. (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Arlington: American Psychiatrists Association.
Baranova, A. (2012) Rethinking the dangerous practice of orphanage tourism . PEPY. [ Internet Blog]. Available from: < http://pepycambodia.org/rethinking-the-dangerous-practice-of-orphanage-tourism/>. [ Accessed 3 July 2012].
Barbieri, C., Santos C.A. and Katsube, Y. ( 2012) On-the-ground observations from Rwanda. Tourism Management, 33 ( 3) June, pp 509-516.
[1] UN, 2009
[2] Save The Children Alliance, 2003
[3] UNICEF, 2010
[4] Save The Children, 1995; Save The Children, 2003; Rehman & Eloundou- Enyegue, 2007; Evans & Miguel, 2007; Friends International, 2011; UNICEF, 2011
[5] Friends International, 2012; Baranova, 2012; Richter and Norman, 2010; Richter, 2010; Birrel, 2010,2011; Brandpunt, 2014; ZDF, 2014; Al Jazeera, 2012; Carmichael, 2010; Tourism Concern, 2013; Horton, 2011; Reas, 2011; Voelkl, 2012; Save the Children, 2009
[6] UNICEF, 2004; Firelight Foundation, 2005; Richter & Norman 2010
[7] Next Generation Nepal, 2013
[8] UNICEF, 2005; Schimmelpfenning, 2011
[9] Birrell, 2010
[10] UNICEF, 2011
[11] Morgan & Walker, 2013; Brandpunt, 2014
[12] UNICEF, 2011
[13] UNICEF, 2011; ZDF, 2014; Brandpunt, 2014; Tourism Concern, 2013
[14] UNICEF, 2011; Tolfree, 1995
[15] Aljazeera, 2013
[16] Reas, 2011
[17] UNICEF, 2011
[18] Norman, 2011
[19] Richter, 2010
[20] Horton, 2011; UNICEF, 2011
[21] Stoddart & Rogerson, 2004
[22] Wearing, 2001
[23] Clifton & Benson, 2006; Gray & Campbell, 2007; Barbieri, Santos & Katsube; 2012 Morgan 2010)
[24] Sin, 2009; Mcintosh & Zahra, 2008

http://tourismconcern.org.uk/residential-care-centre-perspectives-on-the-impacts-of-orphanage-tourism-in-cambodia/

Saturday, September 6, 2014

Tourism Concern works on Volunteering Standards

GIVS Volunteering Standards Group

Setting standards in international volunteering

Photo ©Quest Oversees

We aim to promote best practice in international volunteering, to maximise the beneficial developmental impacts in the communities where volunteering takes place, minimise the negative impacts, and to ensure volunteers have a worthwhile experience. Become a member of the International Volunteering Standards Group (GIVS) today.

Thinking of Volunteering?

Our policy on working with Industry

Tourism Concern's GIVS Volunteering Standards Group seeks to ensure that volunteering is a force for good by collaborating with ethical and responsible international volunteering organisations who are passionate about maximising the positive developmental outcomes of volunteering, whilst also working to minimise potential negative impacts.
>> Become a member of the GIVS Volunteering Standards Group.
With volunteering overseas on development projects rapidly growing in popularity and increasing numbers of adventure tour operators offering ‘voluntourism’ packages, serious questions have arisen about how some such projects are managed and how the benefits are being shared. It is also a challenge for prospective volunteers to identify organisations that embrace best practice.

The vision of the GIVS Volunteering Standards Group

The aims of the GIVS Volunteering Standards Group

We aim to achieve our vision through continual improvement in member organisations’ business practice, including using GIVS principles as guidance.
We aim to develop and improve the GIVS standard and to establish practical ways of measuring compliance with its principles.
We will collaborate with members to collect and publicise personal stories, which demonstrate the benefits to communities of compliance with GIVS principles.
We seek to be inclusive in order to maximise the influence on the volunteering sector, but to be clear about members’ responsibilities and to exclude from membership organisations that fail to comply with agreed guidelines.
We will seek to identify measurable improvements as a result of the changes implemented by member organisations, particularly in impacts within the communities in which they operate.
Members will not behave in such a way as to compromise the reputation of Tourism Concern, or have any negative impact on Tourism Concern's core activities.

Members opportunities

Every new member will be assessed under the GIVS standard as part of the membership fee. This will take approximately half a day and take the form of a consultation, using an assessment form which will be sent in advance. This is a shared exploration of what compliance with GIVS might mean for your organisation. It is not an audit.
Be part of an influential group pushing forward the responsible volunteering agenda.
Profile your organisation on our website and within our monthly e-newsletter; reaching thousands of people who are interested in ethical tourism and volunteering.
Display the GIVS logo on your website and leaflets.
Attend quarterly meetings addressing current thinking on critical issues, with occasional guest speakers from both inside and outside the industry.
Receive updates on Tourism Concern news and campaigns and ways to get involved.
Attend informal networking events to share experiences and exchange views.
Benefit from training specifically designed for volunteering organisations.

>> Join GIVS and see how you can make your volunteering business more prosperous.
For more information about GIVS or to register your interest, email Peter Bishop at Peter@tourismconcern.org.uk

Other resources

Dr. Kate Simpson of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne has written a handy guide to help you learn about the quality and value of the projects or placements an organisation offers before you arrive in the country. Download a copy of the guide here.
Tourism Concern is grateful for the support of Comhlámh, whose own code of conduct guided the development of Tourism Concern's international volunteering code.

Please check the full article here: http://www.tourismconcern.org.uk/givs.html

My qualitative research on the impacts of orphanage tourism on residential care centers in Cambodia

I just finished my research for the International Centre of Responsible Tourism Management. It may be of interest to you. This is the executive summary. Are you also researching or reporting on this topic? Contact me for the full report!

Executive summary:

The research aim in this paper was to identify the impacts of `orphanage tourism` on residential care centers in Cambodia and provide recommendations to the centers and volunteer sending organisations. The objectives were to provide background information on the phenomenon of orphanage tourism/ childcare tourism in Cambodia and its social and economic impacts, to research the negative and positive impacts of orphanage tourism in Cambodia by interviewing the managers directors or volunteer coordinators of 9 residential care facilities and to develop recommendations and guidelines for the residential care centers and volunteer organisations to improve the volunteering practice in the future. Through qualitative research, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 9 managers, directors or volunteer coordinators in orphanages in Cambodia. Literature research was also undertaken to investigate the background and context of the phenomenon of orphanage tourism in Cambodia.

The research revealed that impacts of orphanage tourism are perceived by the respondents as mainly positive and rarely negative. Impacts of residential care are also seen as more positive than the children’s abusive family situations. All centres say the positive impacts are due to strict recruitment, induction, rules and regulations concerning volunteers and tourists. The negative impacts are often caused by cooperation with volunteer sending agencies which have an overall negative reputation throughout the literature and secondary data. It was clear that the respondents and the literature largely contrast in depicting the practice of orphanage tourism. The respondents distance themselves from the overly negative description of orphanage tourism in literature and media. Thus the research provides a summary of the literature and research on orphanage tourism and new and interesting insights in the perception of impacts of orphanage tourism through the eyes of the host. Furthermore it provides recommendations for host organisations, volunteer sending organisations and governments to improve their practices and policies about orphanage tourism.

Saturday, August 30, 2014

We`re very happy with the increased attention for child protection in tourism. Check out this article about WTM 2014:

Meeting the many challenges of child protection for tourism

July 15, 2014 by Harold Goodwin 1 Comment

Harold Goodwin

Harold is Professor of Responsible Tourism at Manchester Metropolitan University, where he teaches and researches in the Centre for Responsible Tourism. Harold researches on tourism, local economic development and poverty reduction, conservation and responsible tourism and teaches Masters and PhD students. as well as the industry, local communities, governments, and conservationists. Harold also undertakes consultancy and evaluations for companies, NGOs, governments, and international organisations. He is also a Director of the International Centre for Responsible Tourism which he founded in 2002 and which promotes the principles of the Cape Town Declaration.

Comments

tryshashbyrolls says

July 31, 2014 at 4:33 pm

Very glad to see that child protection is to be discussed at the forthcoming conference. It may be of note that I gave a paper on curbing child sex tourism at the 3rd International Travelers’ Philanthropy Conference, Costa Rica, in 2011.

Link to article: http://blog.wtmresponsibletourism.com/2014/07/child-protection-tourism-wtm-london-2014/

Gap years: Voluntourism – who are you helping?

If you’re looking for opportunities abroad, check your skills match and you will be helping, rather than hindering, says Rose Dykins

Working with children in Cambodia has been a particular cause for concern

By Rose Dykins

9:27AM BST 14 Aug 2014

9 Comments

Volunteering placements abroad are a popular choice for gap years, but projects need to be chosen wisely or there is a danger participants may end up doing more harm than good.

Kristina is a friendly 19-year-old from the UK, who recently went on a volunteer placement in Cambodia.

“We were told it would involve a mixture of teaching and building water pumps for rural families,” she says. “However, during the placement, only two out of the 14 of us taught English. The rest of us literally dug a road. We moved piles of dirt for six weeks – and right at the end, a digger turned up and finished it in about half an hour, which was fairly infuriating.” The voluntary placement cost £3,500.

“Voluntourism” is big business these days, with well-meaning travellers like Kristina paying thousands of pounds to spend a short time working towards a cause in another country. But how can you be sure your money (and you) will be doing any good? And, more importantly, you won’t be doing any harm?

Working with children in Cambodia has been a particular cause for concern. Recent revelations about the widespread problem of fake orphanages in the country have called in question the validity of voluntary placements in children’s institutions. The Cambodian city of Siem Riep, with a population of 100,000, is now home to roughly 35 orphanages. And according to activist group Orphanages No (orphanages.no), 75 per cent of children living in Cambodian orphanages are not orphans.

“Our concern is that local parents have been told that their children will be better off in these institutions, so they feel it’s a sacrifice they need to make,” said Aarti Kapoor, regional program manager for World Vision’s Child Safe Tourism project (childsafetourism.org). “Children should certainly not be spending their childhood growing up in an orphanage if there are better alternatives.”
Kapoor believes that institutionalising children in this way puts them at a greater risk of sexual abuse and exploitation – including from tourists – and that supporting orphanages through voluntourism can allow that to happen.
Volunteers should also consider what practical help they could realistically offer in an orphanage.
Sallie Grayson from People and Places (travel-peopleandplaces.co.uk), a UK organisation that arranges overseas voluntary placements, said: “Volunteers should ask themselves 'do I have the skills to do this job?’
“ 'Would I be allowed to go and hug a baby at an orphanage in my own country?’ And we know what the answer is,” she said. “Why should we be allowed to go and use economically poor communities as our playthings?”
Child protection agencies and NGOs (non-governmental organisations) are increasingly expressing their opposition to orphanage tourism and, last summer, Responsible Travel, an umbrella group for ethically minded tour operators and hoteliers discontinued its orphanage volunteering trips.
“The only circumstances in which a voluntary placement with children could be considered is where it is a well-organised, professional placement with a volunteer who is vetted,” said Kapoor. “A qualified and experienced professional that works with children in their home country, and who is building the local capacity of staff. Children deserve no less.”
When considering any kind of placement, volunteers should ensure their skillset matches the requirements of the placement and find out as much as possible about the daily work they will be doing to ensure they can make a valuable contribution.
“The most important thing is to start with local community need,” explained Grayson. “Volunteers should establish that the project they are going to work with would exist whether or not volunteers were there. The volunteer programme should not be the driving force – it should be a support and add-on to the work that people are already doing day-in day-out on the ground.”
A reputable organisation should be able to tell you how the fees it charges are being spent, to show you its responsible tourism policy, and to put you in touch with ex-participants and locals on the ground. The good news is that people are increasingly holding these organisations to account via review sites and social media (see facebook.com/BetterVolunteering).
While the worst case scenario of irresponsible voluntourism could be inadvertently harming local communities, it’s worth remembering that the volunteers lose out too. But by asking the right questions and with enough planning, well-intentioned young people can be confident their skills will be put to good use.

see the full article on: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/hubs/gapyear/11032507/Gap-years-Voluntourism-who-are-you-helping.html

Thursday, August 28, 2014

Orphanage Tourism: what is it all about?

Richter and Norman (2010) describe `Aids Orphan tourism’ as one aspect of the global `voluntourism’ industry that sells an emotional connection with needy young children. According to them it is a form of volunteer tourism characterized by short-term travel to residential care facilities to engage in every day caregiving for Aids Orphans. A general definition of `orphanage tourism’ can be derived from Richter and Normans focus on aids orphans: visiting an orphanage for a short leisure visit or for volunteering. Tourists either address the facility directly or reach them through an agency abroad or in the country.
Different types of orphanage tourism for example exist in Cambodia:

 Volunteering in an orphanage

 Visiting an orphanage as part of a day trip

 Attending a dance performance danced by orphans

 Attending a Christmas carol singing event in a hotel organized by orphans.

 Trips to local orphanages

 Taking a TukTuk ride to an orphanage

In the literature, the issues arising from orphanage tourism are manifold. Although examples in other countries exist, the literature mainly focuses on Cambodia.
• The high rise in number of orphanages

According to UNICEF (2011), there has been a 75% rise in the number of orphanages in Cambodia since 2005. This figure only captures facilities that are registered with the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, so actual numbers could be much higher.

Morgan and Walker (2013) and UN Advisor Tessa Bourdie ( Brandpunt 2014) suggest a link between the 250 % rise in tourism during the same period as the rise in residential care facilities. UNICEF (2011) confirms the majority of orphanages are supported by overseas donors and tourists who are unaware of community based and family care alternatives and the potential risks of putting children in orphanages. Also contributing to this increase is the support residential care receives by local government, who often suggests to families to put their children into care in the absence of alternative support mechanisms (UNICEF 2011). Now, there are 269 orphanages in the country and only 21 are state run. Cambodia, torn apart by civil war in the 1970s, and again in the 1990s, has become a hotspot for voluntourism and orphanage tourism. Residential care facilities are increasingly replacing traditional forms of non-residential care, like family and community care (UNICEF 2011). Not only in Cambodia orphanages are rapidly expanding due to tourism and the media attention, there have been reports and articles about Sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF 2004; Firelight Foundation 2005; Richter and Norman 2010), Nepal (Next Generation Nepal 2013), Indonesia (UNICEF 2005; Schimmelpfenning 2011) and Ghana (The guardian 2010).
 The orphanage as a tourism attraction

According to UNICEF (2011) private overseas donors are the main funders of residential care in Cambodia and have little awareness of alternatives to residential care. Sebastien Marot, Director of NGO 23

Friends International and the Child Safe network in Cambodia, acknowledges in Voice of America (Carmichael 2011) most tourists going to orphanages are acting out of pure motives when they visit and donate money. But according to him there is little doubt that some Cambodian orphanages have been set up to make money from foreign tourists. UNICEF (2011) says there are cases of children being asked to perform for, or befriend donors and sometimes to actively solicit the funds to guarantee the residential centers' survival. This was also confirmed in the ZDF (2014) and Brandpunt (2014) documentaries, where children dance, paint, beg or sew to receive donations from tourists. Tourism Concern (2013), a UK based NGO specialized in child protection, agrees that many orphanages are run purely as a business where children are used for profit and conditions are kept in bad state to receive donations from well-meaning donors and volunteers.

On the UN humanitarian news and analysis news website IRIN (2009), child protection specialist Eric Okrah gives the example of Ghana: "Running an orphanage in Ghana has become a business enterprise, a highly lucrative and profitable venture." He adds: "Children’s welfare at these orphanages has become secondary to the profit motive’’. According to Joachim Theis, UNICEF head of child protection for West Africa, (IRIN 2009) not only tourists but also donors are attracted to orphanages because they appear to be a simple solution.

A recent report about Nepal’s orphanage tourism business by the NGO Next Generation Nepal (Next Generation Nepal 2013) reveals orphanages have also become a lucrative business in Nepal with profit to be made from both the families, who are deceived as to what will happen to their children, as from well-intentioned foreign tourists who donate funds. 90% of the 759 children's homes in Nepal are located in the tourist areas of the country and children's homes commonly try to get the sympathy from tourists in the hope they will pay to volunteer or make financial donations.
Jane Reas (2011, p 11) argues the poorness and orphaned state of Cambodia’s children is being turned into a marketable commodity, in part, by an equally massive industry that is volunteer tourism. ‘’Laborers in many of the components of the orphanage tourist industry transform the poverty and neediness of the orphaned child into ‘an amazing experience’; ‘a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity’; ‘the most fun you’ll ever have’’. She quotes Halnon (2002, p508) "the tourist is estranged from what really lies behind the commodity: the haunting humanity of the poor and fearful reality of poverty" 24

 Orphans with parents

Another issue is that parents are giving away their children to orphanages in hope of a better future for them. Aljazeera (2013) estimated that over 70% of the estimated 11,945 `orphans’ in Cambodia have at least one living parent. Parents are bringing their children to these tourist and donor funded orphanages because they cannot provide them with food and education (UNICEF 2011; Tolfree 1995). According to the recent UNICEF report on residential care in Cambodia (2011, p9) "While an array of other socio-economic factors such as remarriage, single parenting, large families and alcoholism contribute to the likelihood of placing a child in care, the single largest contributing factor for placement in residential care is the belief that the child will get a better education’’. These residential care centers are technically not orphanages and these children are not orphans, but in Cambodia for example the terms `orphanages’ and `orphans’ are widespread ( Reas, 2011). In West-Africa, funding of orphanages has also been reported to break families apart. Children in orphanages may actually have one or both parents still living. (IRIN, 2009) A January 2009 study by the Social Welfare Department and UNICEF showed that up to 90 % of the estimated 4,500 children in orphanages in Ghana are not orphans. According to the UN report Human Rights in Liberia`s Orphanages (UN 2007) a similar situation is occurring in Liberia. After the tsunami in Indonesia it was also reported that parents were sending their children to orphanages because they didn`t have the means to take care of their children. ( UNICEF 2005). Of the estimated 1,821 children living in orphanage care in Sierra Leone, UNICEF and child protection agencies have verified just 256 as having lost both parents ( IRIN 2009). The Daily Mail (2011) reports in Bali, the number of orphanages has doubled in less than a decade, despite two-thirds of the children having parents. In Sri Lanka a study found that 92 per cent of children in orphanages had one or both parents living (Birrell 2011). There are over 11,000 children living in ‘’orphanages’’ in Nepal (Next Generation Nepal 2009), yet an estimated two-thirds of these children are not orphans. Despite international and Nepali laws and policies against the use of children’s homes, except as a last resort, thousands of children continue to be displaced from their families into orphanages. So in fact most children are not orphans and the care facilities they end up in are not strictly spoken `orphanages` but residential care facilities.
According to UNICEFs study of attitudes towards residential care in Cambodia ( 2011), many tourists are unaware that the majority of children in residential care in Cambodia are not double orphans and 49.3 % of tourists believed the main reason children were in orphanages was because they did not have parents. 25

Negative impacts on vulnerable children

The academic research on negative impacts of residential care on children is extensive.

Studies found that young children in residential care had significantly higher rates of Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) ( Tizard and Hodges, 1978; Zeanah and others 2005 ). This disorder can either make the child withdrawn (inhibited type) or indiscriminately social (disinhibited type) ( American Psychiatrists Association, 2013). Other studies in Romania found that young children in institutions were more likely to have cognitive delays, poorer physical growth and competence (Smyke, Dumitrescu and Zeanah 2002; Smyke and others 2007; Nelson and others 2007). According to Save The Children ( 2009), a leading NGO on child protection, children under three, in particular, are at risk of permanent developmental damage as a result of the lack of family-based care. Van IJzendoorn, Luijk and Juffer ( 2008) meta-analysis of 42 studies conducted in 19 countries found significant differences between the IQ of institutional children and children raised in family settings. They also found that children placed younger at the institution had worse outcomes than those who were older or placed in the institution at an older age. Other studies confirm that orphans face inferior educational outcomes than non-orphans (Rehman and Eloundou- Enyegue 2007; Evans and Miguel 2007). Vijghens ( 2004) small study "Child Recovery Centers in Cambodia" and the ICC/HOSEA study ( Chhin, 2001) "Project Survey of Alternative Child Care in Phnom Penh and Kandal" both found the vocational skills of young adults leaving residential care centers inadequate for the job market and to support themselves. Other studies point out the negative effects on children’s health when living in orphanages, with an increased risk of infections and malnutrition (Frank and others 1996) although some argue that other residential care centers do meet the health and nutrition standards (Whetten and others 2009; Boyle 2009).
In the last few years, research also focuses on the negative impact of tourism on residential care centers. Amy Norman co-author of the paper "AIDS Orphan Tourism." talks to Clemmens on the voluntourist.org website (2011, webpage?) about the psychological effects of orphanage tourism and confirms the Reactive Detachment Disorder (2010): "Very young children are programmed to build attachments. And you have got repeated abandonments — first with young children whose parents may die of AIDS, then they go to live in an orphanage where you often have high staff turnover and then you've got tourists that are coming as sort of the third wave of this abandonment," Her colleague Linda Richter adds that institutionalized children tend to manifest the same indiscriminate affection towards volunteers. And volunteers are also encouraged to make intimate connections with the children ( 26

Richter 2010). After a few days or weeks, this attachment is broken when the volunteer leaves and a new attachment forms when the next volunteer arrives. She point out, although there is little empirical evidence on children’s reactions to very short-term, repeat attachments over time, evidence from children in temporary or unstable foster care indicates that repeated disruptions in attachment are extremely disturbing for children, especially very young children. Tourism Concern (2013) confirms the experience of constant abandonment causes low self-esteem, and lack of self-worth created by hugging and playing volunteers and visitors.

Hanna Voelkl (2012) discusses the effects of orphanage tourism on the children in Ghana. She concludes as a result of the usage of their orphanage as a volunteer tourism site; the children are spoiled but poor. On one hand, they get a lot of material presents and have constant entertainment through the continuous flow of volunteers. On the other hand, she finds it appalling to what little extent the volunteers actually make an impact in terms of sustainable improvement of the children's living situation or their intellectual development. According to her findings, even though several dozen volunteers pass through the orphanage every year, the children still receive poor education due to poorly trained and underpaid teachers, have no health insurance, no mosquito nets, no proper mattresses, and not enough rooms or beds to sleep in. In the end, volunteers lack the power, expertise and resources needed for sustainable development.

Tourism Concern (2013) points out the possible gaps in the children’s education due to the lack of consistency in teaching, accents and different approaches to teaching. In the Al Jazeera documentary (2014) the anti-human trafficking organization SISHA, based in Cambodia, says they receive numerous reports of abuse and trafficking in orphanages. Similarly, according to the Next Generation Nepal report (Next Generation Nepal, 2013), It is very common in Nepal for children in homes to be denied access to their families and forced to lie about their names and origins, and in some cases to suffer physical, psychological and sexual abuse. This causes long-term psychological damage on the children concerned, and it puts them at significant social and economic and disadvantage as adults. UNICEF (2011) also found that parents in certain cases were not allowed access to their children
According to Save the Children (2009), in many countries, the use of care institutions continues to rise, despite recognition of the harm it can cause. This for example in central and eastern Europe, the former Soviet, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Cambodia and many more. Some of these increases are due to the persistent use of institutional care within the formal child protection system, while other increases are due to the rise of unregulated and unlicensed institutions. 27

 Lack of skills of orphanage management

Another issue, pointed out by ConCERT CAMBODIA (2011) and UNICEF (2011) is whatever their motives, the vast majority of people running the orphanages in Cambodia have little or no skills and experience in operating residential childcare institutions. According to the Michael Horton (2011), Sydney Morning Herald (2011) ZDF (2014) and Brandpunt (2014), visitors who have undergone no background checks can walk into dozens of Cambodia's orphanages and be left alone with children, even removing children from the centre for a trip or a lunch ( ZDF 2014; Brandpunt 2014; Tourism Concern 2013). Staff and volunteers rarely undergo background checks before working at the orphanage (UNICEF 2011; Al Jazeera 2013) Boyles (2009) study in Cambodia revealed that staff members of residential care centers or shelters felt they had most problems with managing the children, conflict solving and counseling due to lack of training.

According to UNICEF (2011) residential care centers in Cambodia generate funds that are unaccountable or in some cases provide profit. Furthermore, according to Tourism Concern (2013) and Phiri and Webb (2002), orphanages are financially unviable as a long-term solution, costing far more per child than alternative, community-based care. According to them a recent study in sub-Saharan Africa showed that institutional care can cost up to six times as much as alternative child care mechanisms. Yet many donors would rather donate to orphanages, where they can see an actual child, build an emotional `relationship’, and feel that they know exactly where their donation is going. According to them, better, more appropriate community based alternatives that are more child focused, rather than donor focused, are often overlooked.

According to Save The Children (2009), alternative options to orphanages already exist. Several successful models of family and community-based care have already been developed. According to them not all care institutions are harmful to children, and small group homes, in particular, can sometimes play an important role in meeting the needs of certain groups of children. However institutional care in general is rarely provided appropriately, to a high enough standard and in the best interests of the individual child. Also, the problem is not being tackled due to lack of political will to invest in and promote family-based and community care and misconceptions of donors and humanitarian organizations, unaware of the potential harm on institutional care.

( chapter from the research The impacts of orphanage tourism on residential care centers in Cambodia. Please contact me to read the full research report)

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Residential care centre perspectives on the impacts of orphanage tourism in Cambodia